(1) Factionalized Government
In the 16th century, the Sarim scholars became officials of the central government and confronted the old scholars who were in positions of power in the government. The two factions participated in the administration of the government under King Songjong with different political views but did not often confront each other. Immediately after Prince Yonsan came to the throne, confusion ensued in politics. The existing and new factions engaged in a political struggle which has come to be known as "Sahwa," the bloody purge of scholars. When Yonsan was dethroned and Chungjong became King, the new Sarim forces attempted to administer to the government a Confucian idealism centered around the scholar Cho Kwang-jo. However, their policies of reform failed as a result of opposition by the old faction. This drove the government into a state of confusion. Later, the political scene worsened, as conflicts within the queen's family increased in severity. Under the reign of King Sonjo, the new Sarim forces led the nation's activities and Sarim politics began. There were, however, political differences among the Sarims and factionalism arose. They carried out a particular form of governing by restraining the growth of any one particular faction and taking turns in possessing power. This factionalism which began in early Choson became more complicated as they entered the late Choson Dynasty. Later factionalism grew even worse and had negative ramifications on social and economic life. These factional strifes were not corrected even after the country experienced the great suffering of the Waeran and Horan. Rather, factionalism grew in intensity creating not only political confusion but divisions in society as well.

(2) The T'angp'yong Policy and Restoration of Choson
The many years of continuous factionalism in politics brought about all sorts of negative effects. There were deep concerns expressed over such ramifications and during the reign of King Sonjo, Yi I cautioned against the evils of factionalism. In the 18th century, Yongjo and Chongjo promoted the T'angp'yongch'aek, a pacifying policy, in order to check factionalism.
They called the representatives of each faction together, advised them to get along, promoted people without making distinctions on the basis of faction, erected the T'angp'yong monument at the entrance of Songgyun'gwan and even taught students. This policy, enforced with a strong will, eliminated factionalism by refusing to take sides with any one faction and thus achieved the restoration of Choson. Yongjo closed 300 Sowons, enforced the Kyunyok law (balancing law) in order to do away with evils within the military and restored the Sinmun'go system in order to carry out politics reflective of the wishes of the people. In addition, many precious books were published and distributed. King Chongjo also promoted King Yongjo's policy of strengthening royal authority. He especially made efforts to achieve cultural restoration. He established the Kyujang-gak (palace library) and nurtured it as an institution of the crown for the study of the arts, sciences and national policies. He also ordered the compilation of a code of law called Taejon t'ongp'yon, a pictorial text of the military arts, the Kyujangchonun, a book on phonetics, Chungbo munhonpigo (encyclopedia Koreana), the Ch'ungwan-ji, and the T'akch'i-ji as national undertakings. The newly organized Royal guards (Changyong yong) also strengthened the military base of the royal authority.

(3) Reorganization of the Tax System
The law-abiding people of Choson bore the three duties of paying farm taxes, public imposts and corvees. Around the period of the Waeran, tax collecting was a disorderly operation which increased the difficulties of the people and thus worsened with the Waeran and the Horan. Only by restructuring its system of taxation could the people live in stability and the government increase its revenue. Restructuring of the taxation system began after the two wars and was all but completed by the 18th century. Land tax was imposed on farmlands. During the two wars, much of the land was desolated and government records of landholdings burnt. Land-surveys and the rearranging of land registers increased the acreage of arable land. However, the amount of land used as palace farms and other royal land which was not taxed increased, and the burden of tax-paying people also increased. Thus, the government instituted and enforced laws which lowered tax rates in order to lighten the people's tax burden and which required fair imposition of taxes.

There were also problems in operating the system of paying imposts on certain farm goods particular to various localities. From the beginning of the nation, the system of paying imposts was enforced but the system caused great suffering among the farmers. Thus, the government ordered the payment of taxes not in goods but in rice and the amount to be paid would be determined by the law governing that region. This was known as the Taedong Law. The Taedong Law was exemplarily enforced in Kyonggi-do through the proposal of Yi Won-ik under the reign of Prince Kwang'hae and it became a uniform law which was enforced in all the provinces except for the P'yong'an and Hamgyong provinces until the reign of King Sukjong. Military service was enforced through a system of universal conscription and all peo ple were expected to serve.

However, from the time of King Chungjong, the military service system was changed so that people would not have to directly bear the burden of service instead, persons with the financial resources could offer the government cloth for military service. The government drafted soldiers without financial income from these fabrics and thus could maintain national defense. However, establishing military organizations with such a system of drafts was in reality unfeasible. There were many abuses in imposting the amount of fabric for military clothes which would have to be paid out. For example, there were occasions on which people were forced to provide military uniform clothing for soldiers who had run away or were missing. From earlier times, there were efforts to do away with such aspects of military service. King Yongjo enforced the Kyunyok Law. This law decreased the number of Pil (a unit of measure for cloth) that would have to be paid from two pils to one, and the state received taxes from fishing, saltmaking, and ships which originally had been collected by the local office or the palace in order to fulfill its financial needs. With changes in the tax system, the burdens of the people decreased, but the abuses in collecting taxes were not completely resolved.

(4) Increase in Farm Production
An effort to reconstruct the farmland left desolated by the Waeran and the Horan wars was undertaken by the government to stabilize the people's livelihood. Land surveys were carried out by compiling land registers, land reclamation was encouraged and the development of irrigation facilities were enforced. Handbooks for farmers were published and distributed in rural communities. The construction of dams and reservoirs increased the number to 6,000 throughout the country by the end of the 18th century. As a result of the expansion in irrigation facilities, rice paddy fields increased. The rice transplanting method which had been used by some farmers in the early stages of Choson was popularized and reduced labor power and increased production. The method of cultivating barley in rice paddies after harvest was popularized. In the area of dryfield farming, planting crops in furrows was a common way to obtain a larger harvest. By reducing labor power through new methods of farming, the per capita of arable farmland increased greatly and land owning farmers who cultivated large acreages of land also began to increase. Some of the owners who had large pieces of land employed farm laborers to help them cultivate the land. In the 18th century, commercial products such as ginseng, tobacco, cotton, fruit, and herbs were also cultivated in order to increase the income of farm families. To help in agricultural development, books on agriculture were published. The Kamjobo, Nongga chipsong (agricultural house collection), Sallim kyongje (forest economy), and Imwon kyongje-chi (forestry economy) are representative of farmer's handbooks which appeared during this time. As the households in farming villages prospered, mutual aid organizations such as Kye and Ture formed in rural communities.

(5) Commercial Developments and the Circulation Organization
During the early years of Choson, except for city shops in Seoul which supplied ordered goods and enjoyed prosperity under special protection by the government, merchants remained inactive. However, in later years, a system of barter emerged and commercial activities underwent change.
After the enactment of the Taedong Law, the government procured necessary goods and had them delivered. The artisans who were responsible for providing these goods were able to thus amass wealth through this system. With the appearance of commercial crops and production goods of "free" handcraftsmen in society, the private merchants who handled such goods made their advent. The city shopkeepers tried to interfere with the activities of these merchants by banning them, to no avail. Under the reign of King Chongjo, a policy of free commercial activities eliminated restrictions against private dealers and commercial activitities of free merchants increased. In the countryside, markets became active, regular markets appeared in each local region and in the large cities, permanent markets opened. In the markets of local regions, merchants and peddlers made their transactions. In the middle of the 18th century, about 1,000 markets opened. Following the development of these markets, roads were improved and currency was circulated in large amounts to facilitate trade. With the emergence of Kogans, a type of middleman, and facilities such as Yogak and Kaekchu, commerce and trade flourished. Parallelling the development of domestic commerce, foreign trade also increased. From the mid-17th century, as trade activities with Qing increased, official and private trade activities were carried on in Chunggangchin and Ceman in Fenghuangcheng Manchuria. Leather, paper, cotton, and ginseng were exported and silk, drugs, hats, and stationery were imported. Trade with Japan was conducted through the Waegwan (Japanese house) with Tongnae as its center, exporting ginseng, rice, and cotton, and importing silver, copper, sulphur, and pepper. Free merchants dealing in domestic goods accumulated huge fortunes. The "Kyonggang" merchants of Seoul, "Songsang" in Kaesong, "Yusang" in P'yong'yang, "Mansang" of Uiju, and the "Naesang" of Tongnae were particularly well known for their wealth.

(6) Changes in Handicrafts and Mining Activities
In the early stages of Choson, handicraft activities were under strong state control because of a system of exclusively government-commissioned handicraftsmen. However, the road to private enterprises in production was gradually opened. During the latter years of Choson, most handicraftsmen paid artisan taxes to the state and carried out their production activities as free merchants. They manufactured paper, ceramics, brassware, lacquerware, printing types, weapons, farm implements, and other necessities of everyday life. After the enactment of the Taedong Law, Kong'in (suppliers of goods on demand for the government), appeared and other handicraftmen produced large quantities of handicrafts through the support of wealthy capitalist merchants, who provided goods for Kong'ins. With growing demand for silver, trade with China increased and silver mining was actively pursued. By the end of the 17th century, 70 silver mines were in operation. At this time, developments in gold mining were also made. Copper mining was developed actively for copperwares, weapons and copper coins. However, enterprising miners and merchants, because of the heavy burdens of taxes, mobilized their capital in order to develop and gather underground resources.

(7) Changes in the Social Status System
The Choson society was a Yangban-centered society. Severe discrimination existed between the Yangbans and the ordinary people. Among the Yangbans, there were those who, as they went from generation to generation, put on airs of pretension, and there were Yangbans in the countryside who outwardly maintained their social status in spite of economic bankruptcy. Among some farmers, there were those who, either through distinguished service in war or providing assistance to the national economy during times of difficulty, were granted Yangban status in recognition of their patriotism. As a result of increased royal or landlord owned farmlands, farmers who lost their land were forced to become either hired farm laborers or day workers. Among slaves, who were recipients of the most contemptible treatment in society, there were increasing numbers who were given the status of common people in gratitude for their military exploits. Because an increase in draftable soldiers and tax payers meant increases in national revenue, the state tolerated the rise of slaves to the status of common people. Thus, by 1801, except for a minority, a total of 66,000 public slaves were liberated to become law-abiding citizens of the state. Technical workers, illegitimate sons of Yangbans, and local officials in government were referred to as the middle class and were recipients of discrimination. Following the changes in the social and economic situation in the latter period of Choson, these persons made efforts to elevate their social status. The Yangban-centered status system was affected, and movement between each social stratum was evident but was inadequate to overturn the historical trends. Thus, the structure of Yangban domination continued as before.

(1) New Directions in Scholarly Activities
During the Choson period, scholarly works were based on the study of Songrihak or Neo-Confucianism. Scholars in metaphysics professed that only metaphysics was correct and dismissed other learnings. They dismissed not only Buddhism, but the philosophy of Wang Yang-ming which was one current in Confucianism, and concentrated on metaphysics alone. As a result, while it is true that metaphysics developed in Choson and obtained deeper roots, it is also true that by placing too much of a bias on the metaphysical theory alone, an atmosphere encouraging the free development of scholarly activities was not present. In spite of the fact that the country's social and economic problems were greatly affected by the damage of the two wars of Waeran and Horan and the livelihoods of the people greatly endangered, metaphysics, which concerned itself with philosophical questions, could not provide the answers to these difficult realities. At this juncture, there arose a new movement in scholarly learning. To rectify the misaligned metaphysical and Yangban-centered reality and to set new directions for the country which would aid the livelihood of the people, new thinking called "Practical Learning" emerged.

(2) The Origin and Development of Practical Learning
The harbingers of Practical Learning were Han Paek-kyom and Yi Su-kwang; however, the actual leaders of Practical Learning who brought its ideas to fruit as a new thought were Yu Hyong-won and Yi Ik. They did not take positions as government officials, but made efforts in rural communities to nurture disciples in order to create opportunities for the development of this movement. Yu Hyong-won wrote the Pan'gye surok and Yi Ik was the author of Songho sasol, which was written in an encyclopedia form. In the early 17th and 18th centuries, scholars of Practical Learning dealt mainly with the problems in rural areas, and from the latter 18th century to the early 19th century, scholars dealt with researching economic, technological, and social problems. Furthermore, around the 19th century, these scholars led efforts to build the axes of Han'gukhak (Koreanology) with studies in history, geography, languages, and epigraphy. This branch of Practical Learning led the scholarly world at this time. So Yu-gu discussed problems in agriculture and showed the way to achieving stability in the livelihoods of the people. Hong Tae-yong, Pak Chi-won and Pak Che-ga insisted that agricultural and commercial industries should be regarded as important, and for that purpose Choson must open its posts to China, import technology and simultaneously increase trade activities. Chong Yag-yong propagated structural reforms and a theory of industrial restoration based on these two positions. His scholarly activities contributed to the understanding of science, medicine, religion and Confucianism. There was not any field which was left untouched by his scholarly work. He wrote 500 volumes of books including the Mogmin simso, Humhum shinso and Kyongse yup'yo and achieved a synthesis of Practical Learning.

(3) Developments in Kukhak (national learning) and the Significance of Practical Learning
Scholars of the school of "on-the-spot survey" which was one of the trends in Practical Learning believed that people must achieve an academic understanding of the realities and culture of their country. They strove to conduct academic research concerning the country. Yi Chong-hwi, Yu Tuk-kong, Han Ch'i-yun, and An Chong-bok studied history, and Sin Kyong-chun, Yi Chung-hwan, Kim Chong-ho studied geography. Chong Sang-ki and Kim Chong-ho drew maps of Korea, but Kim Chong-ho is particularly well known for the creation of a map known as the "Taedong yojido" which was made through actual field studies and had a variety of practical uses.
Many scholars also studied Korea's language. The works of Sin Kyongchun and Yu Hui are famous. Springing from an interest in history, Kim Chong-hwi concentrated on studying the epigraphs on stone monuments. As the sphere of cultural activities expanded and scholarly interest in each of the fields increased, many encyclopedia-like books appeared. Yi Ik's Songho sasol, Yi Tok-mu's Ch'ongchanggwan chonso, So Yuku's Imwon kyongje-chi, Yi Kyu-kyong's Oju yonmun changjon san'go and the palace-authorized Tongguk munhon pigo are representative examples of such works. Ch'oe Han-ki, during the reign of Honjong, was a scholar comparable to Chong Yag-yong who wrote hundreds of books on the subjects of government, geography, science, medicine, and mathematics. Through the scholarly activities of these scholars throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, many measures concerning government administration and improvements in the welfare of the people were presented. The activities of field studies also greatly contributed to national development. These scholarly activities displayed an awareness of approaching modern times and a national consciousness, but were still not completely rid of the influence of metaphysics. In addition, because scholars were not in positions to influence policy making, their advancements didn't affect the actual lives of the people.

(4) Developments in Science and Technology
As the sphere of cultural activities expanded, various industrial activities became active and developments in science and technology and medicine occurred. In addition, Western technology and medicine were partially accepted. Books based on studies of agricultural technologies were reprinted. Among them were: Sin Sok's Nongga chipsong, a technical guide to paddy farming; Pak Se-dang's Saekkyong, a guide to fruit farming, tree planting, livestock farming, floriculture, irrigation and weather; and So Yu-ku's Imwon kyongje-chi, a book dealing with agriculture, forestry, livestock farming, sericulture, food processing, food preservation, clothing, eating, and housing. In addition, Haedong nongso came out as a book which systematized the agricultural sciences of Korea on the basis of such theories of agricultural technologies and management.
Chong Yak-chon, a pragmatist who went to the island of Huksan to study marine products, researched 155 varieties of fish which he collected and catalogued into a book, Chasan obo. Many new theories also developed in the fields of astronomy and divination, which are closely related to agriculture. Yi Su-kwang introduced new theories based on his observations of solar and lunar eclipses, tides and other natural phenomena. Kim Sok-mun and Hong Tae-yong advocated a theory of heliocentricity and criticized the traditional geocentric world view. Kim Yuk introduced the Western calendar from China and put it to use. It is a well-known fact that Chong Yag-yong designed a crane based on a book he read which was imported from China. This crane was used in the construction of Suwon Castle. In traditional Chinese medicine, achievements were also made with regard to its theory and treatment methods. As basic Chinese medical texts, Ho Chun's Tongui pogam and the Ch'imgu kyonghombang (a book on acupuncture) are famous and influencial even today. Research on the measles were carried out early on and Chong Yag-yong compiled many books on the subject in order to publish the Makwa hoet'ong. He even experimented with vaccinations.

(5) Growth in the Activities of Popular Culture
As industrial activities advanced and the welfare of the people improved with changes in the social status system, the population expressed interest in educational and cultural activities. As their knowledge gradually grew, people displayed creative talents in literature and the arts. Although there were some Sodangs (village schools for the learning of Chinese classics) in the early period of Choson, in the latter period, there was hardly a single village which did not have its own Sodang which was run and maintained by the local population. Sodangs were the institutions of primary education which taught Confucianism and history. P'ansoris and other songs indigenous to Korea appeared. These accurately reflected the cultural tastes of the people and contained lyrics from novels and folktales. In addition, the Ch'ang-guk developed, a type of operatic theater which the general population greatly enjoyed, and the mask theaters which made fun of the Yangbans were very popular since they expressed the sentiments of the people. Within the women's society, traditional social activities were frowned upon. So, some ladies, who were learned, composed novels and short poems for songs in Han'gul.

(6) New Movements in Literature
Illustrious Yangban officials exerted most of their energy studying Chinese literature. In opposition to the Yangban's interest in Chinese Literature, the pragmatists believed that the origins of Confucianism must be rediscovered. Thus, a movement to restudy the classics arose. There also appeared a new movement to use colloquial and everyday language and throw away the old conventions. Pak Chi-won's Yolha Diary is a work which was written in this new style. In the late 18th century, the middle class and illegitimate sons of Yangbans engaged in literary activities in order to raise their social status. They revealed the historical origins of the middle class, composed biographies of representative personages, and published anthologies of poems and songs. The Kyusa (History of the Sun Flower) and Ihyang Kyonmullok (Experiences in Foreign Countries) are representative of such biographies and the Ch'onggu yong'on, Haedong kayo and Haedong yuchu are anthologies of poems and songs. The most conspicuous features of literary activities during the latter period of Choson are the appearance of works which display a popular consciousness and have been written to meet popular tastes. Examples are narratives, novels and the pansoris. Tales such as the Taedong yasung and T'aep'yong kwanggi were composed. Among novels, Pak Chi-won's Hosaeng-jon and Hojilmun (Tiger's Reprimand) as well as works by Yangbanjon were written in Chinese characters. But Ho Kyun's Hong Kil-tong-jon, Kim Man-chung's Kuunmong (Dream in Nine clouds) and Sassi namjonggi (Southern Expedition), Changhwa hongnyon-jon (Rose and the Red Lotus), K'ongjwi P'atjwi-jon, Sim Ch'ong-jon, Hungbu-jon, Sukhyang-jon and Ch'unhyang-jon were written in Han'gul and read widely by women and common men. Pansoris were especially favored during the latter period of Choson. Ch'unhyang-ga, Chokbyok-ga, Simch'ong-ga, T'okki t'aryong (Song of the Hare) are the most popular pansoris. The man who became famous for the creation and arrangement of many Pansoris is Sin Chae-hyo.

(7) New Trends in Art Activities
In painting, a new trend arose. Korean landscapes in true life form were drawn. This genre of painting of peculiar customs of everyday life was in vogue and tales which were made popular by the common people laid the groundwork for such paintings. The pioneers of true life landscape paintings were Chong Son and Sim Sa-hong of Hwawon. Kim Hong-to and Sin Yun-bok of Hwawon are also famous as genre painters depicting the lives of the people in the farming villages and cities. Kim Tuk-sin and Kim Sok-sin, two brothers, were also genre painters who possessed similar styles of painting. Among civilian scholars, there were many who displayed outstanding talents in drawing. Among them, Kang Se-hwang, Sin Wi and Kim Chong-hui were particularly well known. There were also changes in the Yangban culture of calligraphy. Calligraphers of the past were not able to break away from the influence of Chinese calligraphers, but Kim Chong-hui succeeded in developing a peculiar style of calligraphy known as Ch'usa.
In the latter period of Choson, white porcelain was chiefly developed. Originally, white porcelain was forbidden to the common people, but in the latter period of Choson, white porcelain was freely sold, and even the common people were able to buy and utilize it. Among wares made in white porcelain, landscapes, flowers and grass were drawn on Ch'onghwa paekcha. They were used as jars, flower vases and water bottles. Among wooden goods, stationery cases, cabinets, tables, and small dining tables were the chief items used in everyday life. Among the architectual works of the latter period of Choson, the most representative with its beautiful and solid structure is the castle of Suwon. Others which still remain today are the Maitreya Palace in the Kumsansa Temple, Taeung-jon in the Sogwangsa Temple, Kakhwang-jon of the Hwaomsa Temple and P'alsang-jon in the Popchusa Temple.

(1) T'ongsinsa and the Flow of Choson Culture
After the Waeran, diplomatic relations with Japan were severed. Later, the newly-formed Tokugawa Shogunate initiated relations with Choson once again. With this new diplomacy, diplomatic activities were to be carried out by the magistrate of Tongnae (Pusan) and the lord of Tsushima Island. Waegwans (Japanese houses) were set up in Pusan to permit diplomatic and trade activities, but Japanese envoys were prohibited from entering Seoul. At the request of the Edo Shugunate, Choson decided to dispatch T'ongsinsas to Japan. Provided with a hospitable reception, the procession of the T'ongsinsa, utilizing both sea and land routes toward Edo, was magnificent. With the dispatch of T'ongsinsa to Japan, the two countries exchanged necessary items through the formality of gifts. Needless to say, the rulers of Edo and the local lords en route strove to obtain even higher cultural developments through the T'ongsinsa procession. Books on metaphysics and history as well as Buddhist sutras were thus obtained by Japan. Poems, paintings and calligraphies were also given to Japanese lords which stimulated continuous developments in modern Japanese culture.

(2) Exchanges with China
From its start, Choson generally had friendly diplomatic relations with China. First with Ming and then as Qing dominated the Chinese continent, Choson developed diplomatic relations with Qing. Choson dispatched envoys to China each year, some of which had political objectives, while others promoted economic and cultural exchanges. That is, through such envoys to China, articles for royal and official use were exchanged in the form of tributes, messages were relayed between the two countries and the envoys also had the opportunity to engage in international trade on the way. The Chinese envoys were comprised of men with high cultural training. On visits to Beijing, the Korean envoys collected books, observed its advanced culture and imported various foreign elements from China. There were also activities to exchange Chinese scholars. After returning home, the envoys reported information to the king regarding the continent through a list of their experiences. There were also highly intelligent Choson scholars who went to Beijing to expand their cultural experiences such as Hong Tae-yong, Pak Chi-won, Pak Che-ga, Yi Tok-mu. They were the Pukhakp'a, the Northern School of Practical Learning.

(3) Introduction of Western Civilization and Western Learning
In the course of making contacts with the advanced civilization of China, the Pukhakp'a posited that the Chinese should not be looked upon as barbarians but their practical civilization should be accepted. They also advocated the acceptance and utilization of Western civilization along with the Chinese. The first Western foreigner to set foot in Korea was a man named Sespedes who came from Japan with the Japanese army during the Hideyoshi Invasion. Afterwards, the Netherlanders Jan Weltree and three others came in 1627, and Hendrick Hamel and a party of 36 men drifted onto Cheju Island in 1653. However, they were not influencial culturally. Contacts between Korea and Western civilization continued to take place in China through Western missionaries in Beijing.
Through such opportunities, Western civilization and Western books translated into Chinese flowed into Choson via China. Such imported Western civilization and books translated into Chinese became, at first, merely objects of curiosity among the intelligentsia of the latter period of Choson. However, in the mid-18th century, Yi Ik began to make a scholarly study of these books and his disciples continued the research. Study of Western civilization basically dealt with two aspects, materialism based on science and technology, and spiritualism based on religion and ethics. The introduction of science and technology was attempted by Kim Yuk, Hong Tae-yong and Chong Yag-yong, but these efforts bore little fruit. Religion and ethics appeared through the acceptance of Catholicism and the realization of an ethical Christian life.

(4) Acceptance and Persecution of Catholicism
Yi Pyok, Kwon Il-sin, and Yi Sung-hun, in the course of reading "The Lost Will of God" and other books on Catholicism which were translated into Han'gul, came to believe in the existence of a Father in Heaven and created a church in Seoul for the purpose of forming a Catholic community in 1784. The attempt to spread Catholicism suffered great afflictions from its beginning. This is because the government enforced a policy of prohibition and oppression of Catholicism in order to guard the orthodox. As King Sonjo came to the throne succeeding King Chongjo, persecution against Catholicism began. In 1801,1839 and 1846, persecution spread throughout the country and many Catholic believers underwent great hardships. In spite of these persecutions, the number of Catholic believers continued to increase in various regions of the country. People sought a new religion in order to obtain a peace of mind which could not be found in reality, which was wrought with social instability due to the contradictions within the political powers during this time.

(5) Contacts by Western Forces with Choson
Since the 17th century, the Western powers had been steadily infiltrating the East via India and Indochina. Upon entering the 19th century, these powers began The Opium War and The Arrow Incident and maintained bases of operations for their continued aggressions in China. Finally, Western powers appeared close to Choson. The first country to request commercial trade with Choson was England. In 1816, two British warships appeared on the southern coast and in 1832, a British civilian ship sailed to the coast of Ch'ungch'ong-do requesting trade, but without results.
As England's competitor in the East, France appeared on the coast of Ch'ungch'ong-do in 1846. Flying the Tricolors on the flagship of its Far East Fleet, they demanded commercial and diplomatic relations with Choson. Before this, French missionaries sneaked into Choson and as a result of their religious activities, they were killed by Choson in the Kihae Massacre (1839). Holding the Choson government responsible for this atrocity, they filed strong protests. Afterwards, England and France repeatedly dispatched civilians and warships trying to open the doors of commercial trade with Choson, but they failed as a result of Choson's closed door policy. They thus sailed away leaving only a sense of crisis and strengthening Choson's hermit policy. In 1852, an American ship and two years later, a Russian ship sailed in the Eastern Sea. The people of Choson during this period feared the Westerners, calling them foreign monsters. They haunted Korea's shores even more frequently during the reign of King Ch'oljong.

(6) Impoverishment in Rural Society and Folk Religions
In the 18th century, under King Yongjo and King Chongjo, restoration politics stabilized society and an era of law and order ensued. But after King Chongjo, under the successive reign of Kings Sunjo, Honjong, and Ch'oljong, the era of Sedo (power) politics began. Political powers were grasped and manipulated by members of the Queen's family. That is, the Andong Kim and P'ung'yang Cho families retained control of the government for 60 years. They were known as the Noron faction. Factional politics meant that conflicting factions checked each other to ensure that a monopoly of political power did not arise. Towards its end, political power belonged to one faction causing the destruction of many government institutes and severe exploitation of people. Thus, rural society was impoverished. Bureaucrats corrupted by the Sedo system exploited their power to rapidly bring about the destruction of the three "Chongs" of the government. The three Chongs refer to the three sources of government revenue: farmland, military and grain.
The local magistrates and officials used all means possible to collect taxes and pocket it for themselves, thereby increasing the burdens borne by farmers. The national financial situation worsened. Still worse, famine and disease continued to add to the hardships of rural communities. These hard-pressed people at first appealed to the government officials for relief, but no corrections were made. Thus, angry masses rose up in rebellion with the poor country Yangbans as their leaders. Such public uprisings filled the people with alarm. Representative examples of these public uprisings are Hong Kyong-nae's Rebellion under the reign of King Sonjo, the rebellion of Chinju during the reign of King Ch'oljong, and the Kaeryong Rebellion. As society fell into a state of confusion, the people's lives were made miserable and many sought religion. Confucianism and Buddhism had lost their appeal and Catholicism was too strange to accept. Thus, the people turned to folklore and beliefs in mysticism and prophesies which were deeply rooted among the lower classes. The prevalence of such folk beliefs bespoke of a world of unrest.

(7) The Establishment and Growth of Tonghak
With social confusion and contacts with foreign powers in the background, another religion known as Tonghak (Eastern Learning) made its appearance. Tonghak was a religion created by Ch'oe Che-u, a Kyongju yangban who had lost his economic fortune. As a belief based on a strong sense of nationalism, it was called Tonghak to signify its stand against Sohak or Western Learning. Ch'oe Che-u overcame the Confucian thoughts of the Yangban society, and stood in conflict with Catholicism of the West, with this new religion. This new religion combined the three thoughts of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. The basic idea of Tonghak was that human minds are heavenly minds; that is, heaven exists in the minds of humans.

Tonghak propagated the ideas of human salvation and equality among promised blessings on earth, and proposed the ideas of national peace, salvation of humanity, and eternal youth. In its philosophy, Tonghak was closed to the theories of metaphysics and it emphasized the end of the world and the creation of a new heaven and earth. This doctrine was arranged during the time of the second religious leader, Ch'oe Si-hyong, and appears in the Tonggyong taejon and Yongdam yusa which are the "Bibles" of Tonghak written for the intelligentsia. When this nationalistic and people-oriented religion of Tonghak was introduced, it spread rapidly in the rural communities of the three southern provinces. The government charged the Tonghak leaders with heresy and executed Ch'oe Che-u, its founder for spreading heresy. After the death of Ch'oe Che-u, Tonghak seemed to have lost its force, but under the leadership of Ch'oe Si-hyong, it planted even deeper roots among the masses.